Destinations › Asia · The Destination Index · universal template · every figure sourced
Mongolia.
Northern Asia, between China and Russia. 1,564,116 sq km and 3,568,978 people, landlocked, with no coastline at all, desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges).
Region · AsiaPopulation · ~3,568,978Languages · Mongolian (Khalkha), with Kazakh in the west and Buryat and Oirat dialectsEco Index · 60/100 · Passable
The Eco Index across 12 pillars · scored 0 to 5 · World Bank, OWID, WHO/UNICEF JMP, FiBL, Protected Planet, IUCN, UNESCO (2023-24)
Conservation
Wildlife
Water
Food & farming
Organic & clean
Climate & energy
Waste
Health
Heritage
Ownership
Governance
Future
The History of Mongolia.
Mongolia holds an exceptionally strong and living nomadic heritage carried across the steppe. Khoomei throat singing, the urtiin duu long song and the morin khuur horsehead fiddle are all recognised by UNESCO, as are the Naadam festival of wrestling, archery and horse racing and the Bie Biyelgee traditional dance.
Where the name comes from
Mongol Uls in Mongolian, for the Mongol people, a name recorded well before the empire of 1206. Source: national and regional toponymic records.
The land itself: semi-desert and desert plains, grassy steppe, mountains in the west and south west, and the Gobi across the south. Its high point is Khüiten Peak, 4,374 m. Source: national mapping and survey records.
Where it starts
Painted caves and carved stones
Early Upper Palaeolithic sites along the Selenga hold blade tools and ostrich eggshell beads from around 45,000 years ago. A skullcap from the Salkhit valley, dated to roughly 34,000 years ago, is the only Pleistocene human fossil found in Mongolia. Cave paintings at Khoit Tsenkher in Khovd cover walls and ceiling with ibex, camels, argali sheep and antelopes. From around 1200 BC carved deer stones and burial mounds spread across the steppe, one of the largest Bronze Age monument groups in Eurasia.
How it got here
Steppe powers
The Xiongnu confederation formed from 209 BC, the first great nomadic power in the region. The Turkic khaganates raised the Orkhon inscriptions, the oldest known Turkic writing, in the Orkhon valley. The Mongol empire was founded in 1206 and became the largest contiguous land empire in history. Mongolia separated from Qing rule and declared independence between 1911 and 1921. One-party rule ended peacefully in 1990.
The timeline
c. 45,000 years ago
Tolbor and the Selenga.
Early Upper Palaeolithic sites in the north hold blade tools and ostrich eggshell beads. ↗
c. 34,000 years ago
Salkhit.
A skullcap from the Salkhit valley is the only Pleistocene human fossil found in Mongolia. ↗
Upper Palaeolithic
Khoit Tsenkher.
Cave paintings in Khovd province cover walls and ceiling with ibex, camels, argali sheep, antelopes and other animals. ↗
c. 1200 to 700 BC
Deer stones.
Carved standing stones and burial mounds spread across the steppe, one of the largest Bronze Age monument groups in Eurasia. ↗
209 BC to AD 93
The Xiongnu.
A steppe confederation forms, the first great nomadic power in the region. ↗
552 to 744
The Turkic khaganates.
The Orkhon inscriptions, the oldest known Turkic writing, are raised in the Orkhon valley. ↗
1206
The Mongol empire.
The empire is founded and becomes the largest contiguous land empire in history. ↗
1911 to 1921
Independence.
Mongolia separates from Qing rule and declares independence. ↗
1990
Democracy.
One-party rule ends peacefully and multi-party elections are held. ↗
About 19.8% of Mongolia was in terrestrial protected areas in 2021 (World Bank), a large and expanding network including some of Asia's biggest reserves such as the Great Gobi. The government has committed to widening protection further. Enforcement is stretched thin across huge distances and faces mining pressure, but the designated network is genuinely substantial.
Is wild Mongolia protected? 19.8% of the land is, against a 30% target for 2030
How protected is nature in Mongolia?
Forest cover9.1%
Terrestrial protected area19.8%
36 (mammals, birds, fish & plants) listed as threatened.
Recorded in Mongolia and named in the open record. Endemic status is stated per species, not implied by this list.
Przewalski's horse (takhi)
Pr
Gobi bear (mazaalai)
Go
Wild Bactrian camel
Wi
Gobi jerboas
Go
The watchlist
ThreatenedSiberian Marmot (Marmota sibirica)Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and recorded in Mongolia in GBIF occurrence data (mammal).
ThreatenedEmberiza aureolaCritically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and recorded in Mongolia in GBIF occurrence data (bird).
ThreatenedNevada Grayling (Pseudochazara hippolyte)Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and recorded in Mongolia in GBIF occurrence data (insect).
ThreatenedPatentflower Monkshood (Aconitum chasmanthum)Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and recorded in Mongolia in GBIF occurrence data (plant).
ThreatenedBaer's Pochard (Aythya baeri)Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and recorded in Mongolia in GBIF occurrence data (bird).
ThreatenedSwan Goose (Anser cygnoides)Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and recorded in Mongolia in GBIF occurrence data (bird).
ThreatenedAquila nipalensisEndangered on the IUCN Red List, and recorded in Mongolia in GBIF occurrence data (bird).
ThreatenedFalco cherrugEndangered on the IUCN Red List, and recorded in Mongolia in GBIF occurrence data (bird).
Critically Endangered, the last IUCN category before Extinct in the Wild, and still recorded in Mongolia. GBIF holds 466 verified occurrence records.
Nevada Grayling (Pseudochazara hippolyte)
Critically Endangered, the last IUCN category before Extinct in the Wild, and still recorded in Mongolia. GBIF holds 2 verified occurrence records.
Patentflower Monkshood (Aconitum chasmanthum)
Critically Endangered, the last IUCN category before Extinct in the Wild, and still recorded in Mongolia. GBIF holds 2 verified occurrence records.
Baer's Pochard (Aythya baeri)
Critically Endangered, the last IUCN category before Extinct in the Wild, and still recorded in Mongolia. GBIF holds 69 verified occurrence records.
Species named here are drawn from GBIF occurrence records for Mongolia filtered to the IUCN Red List threatened categories. Species are listed where GBIF holds occurrence records for them in this country. Record counts are not published here because the figure cannot be reproduced from a public GBIF query.
National park in Khovd, mapped and named in the open record for Mongolia. OpenStreetMap.
Water and Ocean in Mongolia.
Mongolia is largely arid, with the Gobi in the south, yet the north holds major freshwater including Lake Khovsgol, which stores a large share of the country's fresh water. Only about 30% of the population used safely managed drinking water in 2020 (WHO/UNICEF JMP), and Ulaanbaatar's ger districts often rely on water kiosks rather than piped supply. Security is constrained by aridity, distribution and climate stress on rivers.
Does Mongolia have enough fresh water? Yes, with headroom
43.4% of people here have safely managed drinking water at home (2024, WHO/UNICEF JMP). Coverage is well short of universal, so a visitor should not assume the tap is safe.
Cleanest water: Lake Khovsgol, among the clearest lakes in the world.
How much fresh water does Mongolia have, per person?
10,135 m³
Mongolia
1,000 m³
the UN “water scarce” line
Mongolia withdraws about 462 million cubic metres of fresh water a year (2022). That is 3.4% of the fresh water actually available to it, which FAO counts as no water stress. Of what is taken, farming takes 54%, homes and towns 10%, industry 36%. Source: FAO AQUASTAT.
Where does the sewage go?
70.0%
of people have safely managed sanitation
69.9% of people here use a safely managed sanitation service, meaning waste is contained, emptied and treated rather than reaching the ground or the sea untreated (2024, World Bank / WHO-UNICEF JMP, SDG 6.2.1). The rest is what the rivers and the coast receive.
Is the tap water safe in Mongolia?
43.4% of people have safely managed drinking water at home (2024, WHO/UNICEF JMP). Renewable fresh water works out at about 10,135 cubic metres per person a year (World Bank).
How hard is the water supply being pushed?
Of every 10 buckets nature refills, 0 are already taken. Withdrawals run at 1.3% of what Mongolia renews internally each year (2022, World Bank / FAO AQUASTAT). That is inside the 25% mark generally treated as water stress, so the supply has headroom.
When is the best time to visit Mongolia? Tap your month.
Tap your month.
JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec
.
How much fresh water does Mongolia actually have?
Nature renews about 10,135 cubic metres of fresh water per person per year here. That ranks Mongolia 161 of 208 countries measured, putting it in the wetter half of the world. The UN treats anything under 1,000 cubic metres as water scarce, and this is above that line. World Bank / FAO AQUASTAT.
Mongolia is self-sufficient in meat and dairy from its enormous livestock herds and grows wheat and potatoes, but it imports most vegetables, fruit and processed foods. Pastoral production is the backbone of rural life and diet. Self-sufficiency in staples is real but narrow.
Where does the food in Mongolia come from?
11.0% imported
about US$1,245m a year
On the plate: Wheat noodles and dumplings (buuz, tsuivan), potatoes.
How often each food is on the plate
Share of people eating each one regularly. These overlap, so they do not add up to 100%.
Wheat noodles33%
Potatoes15%
1 of 10
bites are imported
The island buys in more food energy than it eats. About US$1,245m a year leaves the country to pay for it. The green slice is roughly what still grows here.
About 11% of everything Mongolia buys in from abroad is food, roughly 1 in every 10 imported items on the dock (2023, World Bank). Farming itself is 8.9% of the economy and 69% of the land is agricultural, of which 0.7% is arable. The green slice is roughly what still grows here.
What is killing people in Mongolia? The imported diet.
Cause of death, and the diet behind it.
Non-communicable diseases, all combined73.6%
Diabetes10.3%
Adults living with overweight or obesity. 58.1%.
Can Mongolia feed itself?
0.7%
Arable land
69.0%
Agricultural land
393,706
Farmers
2,825,074
Arable acres
8.9%
Agriculture, share of GDP
Harvest: Wheat and potato harvest around August to September; dairy and airag peak in summer.
Feeding itself
Mongolia is self-sufficient in meat and dairy from its enormous livestock herds and grows wheat and potatoes, but it imports most vegetables, fruit and processed foods. Pastoral production is the backbone of rural life and diet.
Certification
FiBL records only about 241 hectares of certified organic farmland, effectively 0% of agricultural land in 2020, despite vast extensively grazed rangelands. Certification is almost absent even though much herding is low-input by nature.
Water for crops
Mongolia is largely arid, with the Gobi in the south, yet the north holds major freshwater including Lake Khovsgol, which stores a large share of the country's fresh water. Only about 30% of the population used safely managed drinking water in 2020 (WHO/UNICEF JMP), and Ulaanbaatar's ger districts often rely on water kiosks rather than piped supply.
Why the organic number looks like that. Certified-organic farmland is not separately reported for Mongolia, and that is a certification gap rather than proof nothing is grown cleanly. What the official land record does show: 69% of the country is agricultural land and 0.7% is arable (2023, World Bank). Certification is paid for per farm per year by a foreign body, which prices out smallholders, so the organic number reads worse than the practice.
What actually grows here
WheatPotatoesCarrots/turnips
The food that already fits
The plant-based kitchen here is not an import. By tonnage, the largest crops grown in Mongolia are wheat, potatoes, carrots and turnips, rape or colza seed and cabbages (FAO, FAOSTAT crop production, 2024). That is what the land itself puts on a plate.
Mongolia's power system is dominated by coal, which supplies close to 90 per cent of electricity, while wind, solar and small hydro together provided under 10 per cent of generation in 2023. Coal is also the backbone of the export economy, sold in large volumes to China, which deepens the country's fossil-fuel dependence. Production-based emissions are high at about 12.9 tonnes per person in 2024, driven by coal power, district heating and severe winter energy demand. A Renewable Energy Law and a target of 30 per cent renewables by 2030 exist, but progress remains slow against coal's dominance. High emissions and near-total coal reliance place it near the bottom of the band.
What powers Mongolia?
Renewable 8.4%Fossil 91.6%
Climate pollution per person
The safe amount, what the planet can absorb
2 tonnes
One person here
7.85 tonnes
The world average, for comparison
4.7 tonnes
The worst it ever got
7.85 tonnes
The grid
Mongolia's power system is dominated by coal, which supplies close to 90 per cent of electricity, while wind, solar and small hydro together provided under 10 per cent of generation in 2023. Coal is also the backbone of the export economy, sold in large volumes to China, which deepens the country's fossil-fuel dependence.
Pollution
Ulaanbaatar suffers some of the world's most extreme winter air pollution, driven by raw-coal burning in ger-district stoves, with PM2.5 spiking far above safe levels; the national annual mean was about 22.5 micrograms per cubic metre in 2023 (IQAir) but masks severe urban winter peaks. Mongolia banned thin plastic bags in 2019.
Water stress
Mongolia is largely arid, with the Gobi in the south, yet the north holds major freshwater including Lake Khovsgol, which stores a large share of the country's fresh water. Only about 30% of the population used safely managed drinking water in 2020 (WHO/UNICEF JMP), and Ulaanbaatar's ger districts often rely on water kiosks rather than piped supply.
What pollutes most here
1The gridThe share of electricity still generated from fossil fuel.90.4%
2IndustryCoal mining and raw-coal burning, and unregulated mining; avoid tours involving wildlife products..named
3AirModelled annual mean against a WHO guideline of 5 µg/m³.22.5
4On the recordUlaanbaatar suffers some of the world's most extreme winter air pollution, driven by raw-coal burning in ger-district stoves, with PM2.5 spiking far above safe levels; the national annual mean was about 22.5 micrograms per cubic metre in 2023 (IQAir) but masks severe urban winter peaks.
What has Mongolia promised on climate?
Net zero, whole economy2050
Electricity renewable today10.9% (2021)
Land protected, against a 30% target19.8% by 2025
The net-zero target year on file with Climate Watch is 2050, status: in political pledge. Measured against it, 10.9% of electricity is already renewable (2021, World Bank), so 89.1% of the grid is still to be converted. The pledge on file is measured here against what has actually been delivered, not taken on its own (UNFCCC NDC Registry, CBD Kunming-Montreal Target 3).
The biggest line item
One return flight against a whole year of living.
A resident's entire year7.85 t CO2e
Safe-climate budget, per year2 t CO2e
Johannesburg return, economy2.04 t CO2e
New York return, economy1.83 t CO2e
Sydney return, economy1.82 t CO2e
Los Angeles return, economy1.78 t CO2e
Paris return, economy1.27 t CO2e
How much CO2 does flying to Mongolia emit?
Tap where you would fly from. One return flight, economy.
Every prompt runs on a machine in a building on somebody’s grid. What that costs the planet depends less on the prompt than on what is burning to power it. Here is what would power one in Mongolia.
Data centres
0
Registered colocation and interconnection facilities, PeeringDB, 2026
Grid renewable
8.4 %
What a machine here runs on.
What powers a data centre in Mongolia?
Almost everything a machine here consumes is burned fossil fuel.
Renewable 8.4%Fossil 91.6%
Cooling water. Every one of those halls runs on the national grid, which is 10.9% renewable today (World Bank). A data centre is only as clean as the electricity behind it, so the same figure that decides this country's climate score also decides the footprint of the AI running inside it. Cooling water use is not separately published by facility, and no operator here reports it.
The rules. Mongolia has 0 colocation and interconnection facilities on the public PeeringDB register, alongside 3 internet exchanges (MIX MNDC, MISPA-IXP, IXP-MN).
85% residents to 15% visitors across a year. 637,000 international arrivals in 2019 against 3,568,978 people who live here (2025, World Bank / UN Tourism).
Where a visitor dollar goes in Mongolia
67k
Visitors a year
0.0
Visitors per resident
How deep in debt is Mongolia?· for every $100 Mongolia earns in a year, it owes…
Pay to the order of: the creditorsmemo · the 2017 peak
$ 87The worst year on the IMF record. Mongolia owed $87 for every $100 it earned.
IMF World Economic Outlook, 2017signed, the creditors
Pay to the order of: the creditorsmemo · today
$ 44What is owed now, for every $100 of national income (2026).
IMF World Economic Outlook, 2026signed, the creditors
Pay to the order of: the creditorsmemo · projected 2031
$ 52The IMF's own forecast has this rising to $52 by 2031.
IMF World Economic Outlook projection, 2031signed, the forecast
For every $100 Mongolia earns in a year, it owes $44 (2026, IMF World Economic Outlook). The interest on that is paid before schools, clinics or coastline get their turn.
Where does a tourist dollar actually go in Mongolia?
Play one tourist dollar around the board. Every square is a measured fact from this page.
START!
1
GO: a visitor lands
$100 goes on the table. 637,000 international arrivals in 2019 against 3,568,978 residents, one visitor a year for every 6 residents (World Bank / UN Tourism).
$100 in play
2
The bed
Who owns the largest places to stay in Mongolia is not published in the records we can check, so this square is left open rather than guessed. Where a listing names its owner, it is shown in the ownership table below.
not published
3
The plate
Food is only 11% of everything Mongolia imports (2023, World Bank), so most of a meal is bought from producers inside the country. Eating what the land here actually grows, wheat, potatoes, carrots/turnips, keeps that money with the grower.
mostly home-grown
4
The power
89.1% of the electricity is fossil (2021, World Bank). Lighting, cooling and hot water are paid for largely in imported fuel.
burns away
5
What actually stays
On the parts that can be measured, the power leaves and the plate stays. It is genuinely a coin toss, decided by what you book.
split
6
Pay the bank first
Mongolia owes $44 for every $100 it earns (IMF World Economic Outlook, 2026 projection). The interest is paid before anything else on this board.
$44 per $100
7
No plan B
61.1% of everything Mongolia sells abroad is mineral fuels and oils (2023, UN Comtrade). One market moving takes the whole board with it.
61.1% one export
8
Community chest
Tourism earns 0.6% of everything Mongolia makes from exports (2020, World Bank / UN Tourism). That is how much of the economy depends on the game continuing.
0.6% of exports
9
The flight
Getting here is usually the biggest single line on the bill. From Johannesburg a return economy seat is 2.04 t CO2, on the UK Government's published conversion factors. It is the one part of the trip this board cannot reduce.
2.04 t CO2
10
Back to GO
The economy turns over about US$28 billion a year (IMF World Economic Outlook, 2026 projection). Every lap of this board is a choice about how much of it stays.
US$28bn
GDPUS$25.4bn
Agriculture, share of GDP8.9%
Visitors a year66,900
Visitors per resident0
Residents~3,568,978
Agriculture
Farming is 8.9% of the economy. Mongolia is self-sufficient in meat and dairy from its enormous livestock herds and grows wheat and potatoes, but it imports most vegetables, fruit and processed foods.
Natural materials
Herding sustains a living natural-materials culture of cashmere, sheep wool, camel hair, felt and leather, with felt still used to build and insulate gers. Mongolia is one of the world's leading cashmere producers and felt-making is an everyday nomadic skill.
Energy
Mongolia's power system is dominated by coal, which supplies close to 90 per cent of electricity, while wind, solar and small hydro together provided under 10 per cent of generation in 2023. Coal is also the backbone of the export economy, sold in large volumes to China, which deepens the country's fossil-fuel dependence.
Who owns the biggest hotels in Mongolia?
By rooms · company records and press.
Three Camel Lodge · ~40 roomsIndependentnot published
Visitors, over time
2015467k
2016471k
2017543k
2018598k
2019637k
202067k
International tourism receipts run at about US$0.05 billion in 2020 (World Bank / UN Tourism). That is 0.6% of everything the country earns from exports.
How much of your money actually stays here?
Tap the holiday you are planning.
All-inclusive resortForeign-owned hotel and tourist restaurantsLocally owned stay and local restaurantsGuesthouse, markets and public transport
Resort guest, villa renter, family, nomad or backpacker. The honest playbook for each, from the same sourced numbers.
Already booked a resort? · the rescue list
Five swaps that move your money back on-island
1. Eat where the country eats Choose kitchens cooking what the land here grows, wheat, potatoes and carrots/turnips, over an imported menu. The checked list →
2. Book with a local operator Never the lobby desk. The margin on a tour is the part that stays. Eco tours →
3. Stay somewhere locally owned Ownership decides where the room rate books. Eco stays →
4. Use the transport residents use Four-wheel drives with a driver are essential off-road, with the Trans-Mongolian Railway and domestic flights to the provinces; paved roads are few.
5. Buy the craft, not the souvenir Natural-materials work made here pays the maker directly; imported gifts pay a shipping line.
swipe →
First time here
A vast, sparsely peopled land of steppe, mountains and the Gobi, where living nomadic herding and cashmere and felt crafts endure, but Ulaanbaatar's winter smog and coal reliance are severe.
Best time: Short warm summer.
Getting around
Four-wheel drives with a driver are essential off-road, with the Trans-Mongolian Railway and domestic flights to the provinces; paved roads are few.
Transport is where the fare either stays or leaves.
Eating here
The everyday plate that actually grows here is wheat, potatoes and carrots/turnips. Ordering those keeps the money with the grower and cuts the imported share of the meal.
Eating what the country grows is the cheapest way to cut the import bill.
Good to know
Cash-heavy; MNT. The countryside runs on ger (yurt) hospitality.
Rate my hotel. Tap yours for the honest verdict.
Ownership from company records and press.
Three Camel Lodge
.
Who owns the place to stay
Three Camel LodgeIndependent · 40 rooms
The one property listed here does not publish who ultimately owns it, so no claim is made either way. Ownership is what decides how much of a room rate stays in the country, which is why we show it when a listing states it.
Society and Governance in Mongolia.
How well is Mongolia actually run?
Governance, measured · World Bank WGI
Four measured answers, none of them opinion. Averaged across corruption control, delivery and accountability, Mongolia scores 47 out of 100 (2024, World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators). That matters here because every pledge on this page is only as good as the machinery meant to deliver it.
How well is Mongolia run? · each scored out of 100, higher is better
Clean government, scored 38 of 100
Control of corruption scores 38 out of 100 (2024, World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators). That is below the halfway mark of governments measured.
38
Freedom and rights, scored 59 of 100
Voice and accountability, which measures free expression, free media and the ability to choose a government, scores 59.1 out of 100 (2024, World Bank WGI). Citizens have some room to question their government.
59
Government effectiveness, scored 44 of 100
Government effectiveness, which measures the quality of public services and how well policy is actually delivered, scores 43.8 out of 100 (2024, World Bank WGI). Delivery is rated below average, so a pledge on paper is not the same as a pledge kept.
44
Income equality, scored 31 of 100
The Gini index of income inequality reads 31.4 (2022, World Bank). Zero is perfect equality and 100 is one person holding everything. Below 40 is the level usually treated as manageable, and Mongolia sits inside it.
31
LGBTQ+ status: MixedSolo female travel: Take care98.6% adult literacyIndustry to avoid: Coal mining and raw-coal burning, and unregulated mining; avoid tours involving wildlife products.
What is daily life in Mongolia really like? Measured
Getting around, breathing, throwing away, learning. The honest checklist.
TransportAirWaterWastePower
✓How you get around Four-wheel drives with a driver are essential off-road, with the Trans-Mongolian Railway and domestic flights to the provinces; paved roads are few.
✓Air quality, measured Modelled annual mean 22.5. The WHO guideline is 5 µg/m³.
✓Where the air is cleanest The open countryside and steppe away from Ulaanbaatar, especially in summer.
·Tap water Not drinkable
✓What to drink Bottled water in Ulaanbaatar; in the Gobi you treat or boil everything.
✓Plastic rules Ban on thin plastic bags since 2019.
✓Sockets and voltage Type A/B/C, 220V (varies)
98.6%
literacy. Public spending on education runs at 5.2% of GDP and 13.8% of all government spending, and secondary enrolment stands at 96.8% gross (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2023 to 2024).
Made in Mongolia.
Herding sustains a living natural-materials culture of cashmere, sheep wool, camel hair, felt and leather, with felt still used to build and insulate gers. Mongolia is one of the world's leading cashmere producers and felt-making is an everyday nomadic skill. Every step of processing done at home is value that stops leaving the country.
What Mongolia actually sells the world
The single biggest thing Mongolia sells the world is mineral fuels and oils, 61.1% of all exports in 2023 (about US$9.28 billion, UN Comtrade). The next four are ores, slag and ash at 23.7%, pearls, gemstones and precious metals at 5.0%, wool and animal hair at 2.6%, salt, sulphur, stone and cement at 1.8%.
Made now · natural materials
Herding sustains a living natural-materials culture of cashmere
Worked in Mongolia from local material, and still a working craft rather than a museum piece.
Made now · natural materials
Sheep wool
Worked in Mongolia from local material, and still a working craft rather than a museum piece.
Made now · natural materials
Camel hair
Worked in Mongolia from local material, and still a working craft rather than a museum piece.
Made now · natural materials
Felt
Worked in Mongolia from local material, and still a working craft rather than a museum piece.
Made now · natural materials
Leather
Worked in Mongolia from local material, and still a working craft rather than a museum piece.
Made now · natural materials
Insulate gers. Mongolia is one of the world's leading cashmere producers
Worked in Mongolia from local material, and still a working craft rather than a museum piece.
Buys in · 16.3% of imports
Vehicles
Mongolia imported US$1.50 billion of vehicles in 2023, 16.3% of everything it bought abroad, and sells none of it back. Every point of that is a business that could be built at home rather than shipped in. UN Comtrade.
Buys in · 12.5% of imports
Machinery and mechanical appliances
Mongolia imported US$1.15 billion of machinery and mechanical appliances in 2023, 12.5% of everything it bought abroad, and sells none of it back. Every point of that is a business that could be built at home rather than shipped in. UN Comtrade.
Buys in · 6.6% of imports
Electrical machinery and electronics
Mongolia imported US$0.61 billion of electrical machinery and electronics in 2023, 6.6% of everything it bought abroad, and sells none of it back. Every point of that is a business that could be built at home rather than shipped in. UN Comtrade.
Buys in · 5.5% of imports
Iron and steel articles
Mongolia imported US$0.51 billion of iron and steel articles in 2023, 5.5% of everything it bought abroad, and sells none of it back. Every point of that is a business that could be built at home rather than shipped in. UN Comtrade.
The maths for an entrepreneur. Mongolia produces about US$25 billion a year, which is roughly US$7,108 per person (2025, World Bank). Farming is 8.9% of that, while food is 11% of everything the country imports. The country buys in more food than its own farms contribute to the economy, and every point of that gap is a business someone could build here rather than ship in.
A living tradition of Mongolia, still practised rather than archived.
Urtiin duu long song
A living tradition of Mongolia, still practised rather than archived.
Morin khuur fiddle music
A living tradition of Mongolia, still practised rather than archived.
Bie Biyelgee
A living tradition of Mongolia, still practised rather than archived.
Tsam masked dancesA living tradition of Mongolia, still practised rather than archived.
Naadam festivalA living tradition of Mongolia, still practised rather than archived.
Does Mongolia protect its heritage by law?
Partly, and the gaps say as much as the protections.
What is kept alive. Mongolia holds an exceptionally strong and living nomadic heritage carried across the steppe. Khoomei throat singing, the urtiin duu long song and the morin khuur horsehead fiddle are all recognised by UNESCO, as are the Naadam festival of wrestling, archery and horse racing and the Bie Biyelgee traditional dance. Ancestral spiritual life remains vivid, blending Mongolian shamanism and Tengrism with Vajrayana Buddhism, including the masked Tsam ritual dance.
Who it belongs to. Mongolia retains a living nomadic pastoral culture, with a large share of the population still herding and moving seasonally, and traditions such as the Naadam festival, throat singing and Kazakh eagle hunting in the west. Ger-stay and community-based tourism let travellers stay with herder families, channelling income directly to them. This is among the most intact living nomadic cultures on Earth.
Only here. The Gobi bear (mazaalai), the world's only desert-dwelling bear, found only in Mongolia's Gobi, with only a few dozen left..
Three futures for Mongolia, every one run forward from measured data.
Every measured trend on one line
Run forward at the pace already recorded.
-2%
Forest cover
1995: 9.25 % → 2023: 9.09 %
+69%
CO2 per person
1995: 4.65 t → 2024: 7.85 t
-38%
Tourist arrivals
1995: 108 k → 2020: 67 k
+43%
Protected land
2013: 13.8 % → 2025: 19.8 %
-48%
Farm workforce
1995: 51.7 % → 2025: 27 %
-10%
Agricultural land
1995: 76.6 % → 2023: 69 %
+25%
Urban population
1995: 56.8 % → 2025: 71.1 %
+70%
Air pollution
1995: 25.2 µg/m³ → 2023: 42.7 µg/m³
-35%
Fresh water per person
1995: 15640.8 m³ → 2022: 10134.7 m³
+59%
Adult overweight
1995: 36.5 % → 2022: 58.1 %
+47%
Electricity access
2000: 67.3 % → 2024: 99.1 %
+989%
GDP per person
1995: 653 → 2025: 7108
+60%
Population
1995: 2225 k → 2025: 3569 k
+0%
Renewable energy use
1995: 3 % → 2021: 3 %
+81%
Energy per person
1995: 1205 kg → 2023: 2176 kg
+43%
Protected area, total
2013: 13.8 % → 2025: 19.8 %
+19%
Life expectancy
1995: 60.9 yrs → 2024: 72.4 yrs
+76%
Cereal yield
1995: 735 ha → 2023: 1296 ha
+3041%
Fertiliser use
1995: 1.51 kg/ha → 2023: 47.43 kg/ha
-33%
Rural population
1995: 43.2 % → 2025: 28.9 %
+317%
Water productivity
1995: 7.5 $/m3 → 2022: 31.2 $/m3
-0%
Health spending
2000: 6.08 % → 2023: 6.07 %
-1%
Forest area
1995: 143080 km2 → 2023: 141694 km2
+142%
Electric power use
1995: 1127 kWh → 2023: 2728 kWh
+91%
Emissions: Agriculture
1990: 17.1 e → 2023: 32.7 e
+64%
Emissions: Building
1990: 0.95 e → 2023: 1.56 e
+149%
Emissions: Electricity/Heat
1990: 6.7 e → 2023: 16.5 e
+106%
Emissions: Energy
1990: 13.4 e → 2023: 27.6 e
+306%
Emissions: Industrial Processes
1990: 0.17 e → 2023: 0.69 e
+2%
Emissions: Manufacturing/Construction
1990: 2.83 e → 2023: 2.88 e
+133%
Emissions: Transportation
1990: 1.61 e → 2023: 3.75 e
World Bank open data, recorded series
How much forest is left?
Forest cover moved from 9.2% to 9.1% across 28 recorded years.
World Bank AG.LND.FRST.ZS
How much climate pollution per person?
CO2 per person moved from 4.6 t to 7.8 t across 29 recorded years.
World Bank EN.GHG.CO2.PC.CE.AR5
How many people visit?
Tourist arrivals moved from 108k to 67k across 25 recorded years.
World Bank ST.INT.ARVL
How much land is protected?
Protected land moved from 13.8% to 19.8% across 12 recorded years.
World Bank ER.LND.PTLD.ZS
How many people still farm?
Farm workforce moved from 51.7% to 27.0% across 30 recorded years.
World Bank SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS
How much land is farmed?
Agricultural land moved from 76.6% to 69.0% across 28 recorded years.
World Bank AG.LND.AGRI.ZS
How fast is it urbanising?
Urban population moved from 56.8% to 71.1% across 30 recorded years.
World Bank SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS
Is the air getting cleaner?
Air pollution moved from 25.2 µg/m³ to 42.7 µg/m³ across 28 recorded years.
World Bank EN.ATM.PM25.MC.M3
Is water getting scarcer?
Fresh water per person moved from 15640.8 m³ to 10134.7 m³ across 27 recorded years.
World Bank ER.H2O.INTR.PC
Is diet-related disease rising?
Adult overweight moved from 36.5% to 58.1% across 27 recorded years.
World Bank SH.STA.OWAD.ZS
Who has power?
Electricity access moved from 67.3% to 99.1% across 24 recorded years.
World Bank EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS
Is income rising?
GDP per person moved from 653 to 7108 across 30 recorded years.
World Bank NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
How fast is it growing?
Population moved from 2225k to 3569k across 30 recorded years.
World Bank SP.POP.TOTL
What share of all energy is renewable?
Renewable energy use moved from 3% to 3% across 26 recorded years.
World Bank EG.FEC.RNEW.ZS
How much energy does one person use?
Energy per person moved from 1205 kg to 2176 kg across 28 recorded years.
World Bank EG.USE.PCAP.KG.OE
How much land and sea is protected together?
Protected area, total moved from 13.8% to 19.8% across 12 recorded years.
World Bank ER.PTD.TOTL.ZS
How long do people live?
Life expectancy moved from 60.89 yrs to 72.4 yrs across 29 recorded years.
World Bank SP.DYN.LE00.IN
How much does a hectare of cereal produce?
Cereal yield moved from 735 kg/ha to 1296 kg/ha across 28 recorded years.
World Bank AG.YLD.CREL.KG
How much fertiliser goes on the land?
Fertiliser use moved from 1.51 kg/ha to 47.43 kg/ha across 28 recorded years.
World Bank AG.CON.FERT.ZS
How many people still live rurally?
Rural population moved from 43.21% to 28.85% across 30 recorded years.
World Bank SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS
How much value per cubic metre of water?
Water productivity moved from 7.49 $/m3 to 31.23 $/m3 across 27 recorded years.
World Bank ER.GDP.FWTL.M3.KD
How much goes on health?
Health spending moved from 6.08% to 6.07% across 23 recorded years.
World Bank SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS
How much forest is there in total?
Forest area moved from 143080 km2 to 141694 km2 across 28 recorded years.
World Bank AG.LND.FRST.K2
How much electricity per person?
Electric power use moved from 1127 kWh to 2728 kWh across 28 recorded years.
World Bank EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC
How have agriculture emissions moved?
Agriculture emissions moved from 17.09 to 32.71 MtCO2e across 33 recorded years.
Climate Watch (WRI), historical emissions
How have building emissions moved?
Building emissions moved from 0.95 to 1.56 MtCO2e across 33 recorded years.
Climate Watch (WRI), historical emissions
How have electricity/heat emissions moved?
Electricity/Heat emissions moved from 6.65 to 16.53 MtCO2e across 33 recorded years.
Climate Watch (WRI), historical emissions
How have energy emissions moved?
Energy emissions moved from 13.39 to 27.56 MtCO2e across 33 recorded years.
Climate Watch (WRI), historical emissions
How have industrial processes emissions moved?
Industrial Processes emissions moved from 0.17 to 0.69 MtCO2e across 33 recorded years.
Climate Watch (WRI), historical emissions
How have manufacturing/construction emissions moved?
Manufacturing/Construction emissions moved from 2.83 to 2.88 MtCO2e across 33 recorded years.
Climate Watch (WRI), historical emissions
How have transportation emissions moved?
Transportation emissions moved from 1.61 to 3.75 MtCO2e across 33 recorded years.
Climate Watch (WRI), historical emissions
Worst caseCurrent pathBest case
Worst case
Every measured decline continues at the pace already recorded. The weakest pillar, organic farming at 1/5, is the one that gives way first.
Computed from: recorded series extended with no policy change
Current path
Every line above is a recorded World Bank series for this country. The current path is simply those series continuing at the pace already measured.
Computed from: recorded series, no policy change assumed
Best case
The pledges are met on their own stated timetables and the weakest pillars are lifted to match the strongest. Mongolia already shows it can do this: natural fibres scores 5/5.
Computed from: each published target delivered on its own date
What the best case actually asks for
Lift organic farming
It scores 1 out of 5 today, among the weakest parts of Mongolia's record. FiBL records only about 241 hectares of certified organic farmland, effectively 0% of agricultural land in 2020, despite vast extensively grazed rangelands. Certification is almost absent even though much herding is low-input by nature. Scored on the recorded near-zero share. Lifting it toward the 5/5 the strongest pillars already reach is what the best case turns on.
measured each year
Costs: spending and enforcement, not new technology
Lift energy
It scores 2 out of 5 today, among the weakest parts of Mongolia's record. Mongolia's power system is dominated by coal, which supplies close to 90 per cent of electricity, while wind, solar and small hydro together provided under 10 per cent of generation in 2023. Coal is also the backbone of the export economy, sold in large volumes to China, which deepens the country's fossil-fuel dependence. Production-based emissions are high at about 12.9 tonnes per person in 2024, driven by coal power, district heating and severe winter energy demand. A Renewable Energy Law and a target of 30 per cent renewables by 2030 exist, but progress remains slow against coal's dominance. High emissions and near-total coal reliance place it near the bottom of the band. Lifting it toward the 5/5 the strongest pillars already reach is what the best case turns on.
measured each year
Costs: spending and enforcement, not new technology
Lift plant-based eating
It scores 2 out of 5 today, among the weakest parts of Mongolia's record. The traditional diet is built on mutton, beef and dairy, with relatively few vegetables, so plant-based eating runs against the cultural grain. Ulaanbaatar now has produce markets and vegetarian options, and local potatoes, carrots, cabbage and sea buckthorn feature, but rural choices are limited. Eating unprocessed plants is possible but not the norm. Lifting it toward the 5/5 the strongest pillars already reach is what the best case turns on.
measured each year
Costs: spending and enforcement, not new technology
Government and Goals in Mongolia.
Who is in charge of Mongolia now · office-holders and institutions as published by the state itself; scores from the World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators 2024
Gombojavyn Zandanshatar
Prime Minister
Gombojavyn Zandanshatar is the head of government of Mongolia, in office since 13 June 2025. Every climate, protection and energy pledge on this page is delivered, or not, under this administration.
Public opinion, measured
Voice and accountability, the freedom to question government: 59.1 / 100. Above the halfway mark of governments measured. World Bank WGI 2024
Control of corruption: 38 / 100. Below the halfway mark of governments measured. World Bank WGI 2024
Political stability and absence of violence: 73.1 / 100. Above the halfway mark of governments measured. World Bank WGI 2024
Rule of law: 55.2 / 100. Above the halfway mark of governments measured. World Bank WGI 2024
Regulatory quality: 53.7 / 100. Above the halfway mark of governments measured. World Bank WGI 2024
Gombojavyn ZandanshatarPrime Minister
State Great Hural (Ulsiin Ih Hural)Legislature, unicameral
Next election2027
Last election9 June 2021
Constitutioncurrent text dates from 1992
Government typesemi-presidential republic
Mongolia national goals: climate commitments on record · as recorded by Climate Watch, World Resources Institute
2050
Net zero
In Political Pledge
Net-zero target as recorded by Climate Watch. Status: In Political Pledge (11/7/2022) ↗
The questions people actually type, answered in full sentences from the sourced data above.
swipe →
Is Mongolia sustainable?
Mongolia scores 60 out of 100 on the Throne Eco Index, across twelve equally weighted pillars. A vast, sparsely peopled land of steppe, mountains and the Gobi, where living nomadic herding and cashmere and felt crafts endure, but Ulaanbaatar's winter smog and coal reliance are severe.
Is the water in Mongolia safe and plentiful?
Mongolia is largely arid, with the Gobi in the south, yet the north holds major freshwater including Lake Khovsgol, which stores a large share of the country's fresh water. Only about 30% of the population used safely managed drinking water in 2020 (WHO/UNICEF JMP), and Ulaanbaatar's ger districts often rely on water kiosks rather than piped supply. Security is constrained by aridity, distribution and climate stress on rivers.
Can Mongolia feed itself?
Mongolia is self-sufficient in meat and dairy from its enormous livestock herds and grows wheat and potatoes, but it imports most vegetables, fruit and processed foods. Pastoral production is the backbone of rural life and diet. Self-sufficiency in staples is real but narrow.
Is it easy to eat plant-based in Mongolia?
The traditional diet is built on mutton, beef and dairy, with relatively few vegetables, so plant-based eating runs against the cultural grain. Ulaanbaatar now has produce markets and vegetarian options, and local potatoes, carrots, cabbage and sea buckthorn feature, but rural choices are limited. Eating unprocessed plants is possible but not the norm.
How much of Mongolia is actually protected?
About 19.8% of Mongolia was in terrestrial protected areas in 2021 (World Bank), a large and expanding network including some of Asia's biggest reserves such as the Great Gobi. The government has committed to widening protection further. Enforcement is stretched thin across huge distances and faces mining pressure, but the designated network is genuinely substantial.
What wildlife is left in Mongolia?
Mongolia's steppe and desert hold iconic species including the snow leopard, wild Bactrian camel, saiga antelope and the critically endangered Gobi bear, of which only a few dozen survive. It is the global success story for Przewalski's horse (takhi), the world's only never-domesticated horse, rewilded at Hustai and elsewhere. Endemism is modest but the megafauna and active rewilding stand out.
Is Mongolia on clean energy?
Mongolia's power system is dominated by coal, which supplies close to 90 per cent of electricity, while wind, solar and small hydro together provided under 10 per cent of generation in 2023. Coal is also the backbone of the export economy, sold in large volumes to China, which deepens the country's fossil-fuel dependence. Production-based emissions are high at about 12.9 tonnes per person in 2024, driven by coal power, district heating and severe winter energy demand.
How polluted is Mongolia?
Ulaanbaatar suffers some of the world's most extreme winter air pollution, driven by raw-coal burning in ger-district stoves, with PM2.5 spiking far above safe levels; the national annual mean was about 22.5 micrograms per cubic metre in 2023 (IQAir) but masks severe urban winter peaks. Mongolia banned thin plastic bags in 2019. Waste and litter management outside the capital is limited.
Does recycling work in Mongolia?
There is no strong national recycling rate; formal systems are limited and concentrated in Ulaanbaatar, while informal collectors recover scrap metal, plastic and glass. A small recycling industry exists but coverage is thin. Scored from documented reality rather than a published rate.
Is the farming in Mongolia organic?
FiBL records only about 241 hectares of certified organic farmland, effectively 0% of agricultural land in 2020, despite vast extensively grazed rangelands. Certification is almost absent even though much herding is low-input by nature. Scored on the recorded near-zero share.
Are there natural materials and craft in Mongolia?
Herding sustains a living natural-materials culture of cashmere, sheep wool, camel hair, felt and leather, with felt still used to build and insulate gers. Mongolia is one of the world's leading cashmere producers and felt-making is an everyday nomadic skill. Natural fibres are woven into daily life rather than kept for heritage display.
Is there living culture in Mongolia?
Mongolia retains a living nomadic pastoral culture, with a large share of the population still herding and moving seasonally, and traditions such as the Naadam festival, throat singing and Kazakh eagle hunting in the west. Ger-stay and community-based tourism let travellers stay with herder families, channelling income directly to them. This is among the most intact living nomadic cultures on Earth.
What heritage does Mongolia keep alive?
Mongolia holds an exceptionally strong and living nomadic heritage carried across the steppe. Khoomei throat singing, the urtiin duu long song and the morin khuur horsehead fiddle are all recognised by UNESCO, as are the Naadam festival of wrestling, archery and horse racing and the Bie Biyelgee traditional dance. Ancestral spiritual life remains vivid, blending Mongolian shamanism and Tengrism with Vajrayana Buddhism, including the masked Tsam ritual dance.
So is Mongolia actually green? The measured answer
What is working: the record is thin on the headline measures, and the sourced numbers below say why.
What is not: renewable electricity at 10.9% against a 100% mark.
Mongolia sits 65 of 77 at 60/100. Every name links to its own destination page, built exactly like this one. The full ranking →
What is Mongolia particularly good at?
✓Culture, scored 5/5. Mongolia retains a living nomadic pastoral culture, with a large share of the population still herding and moving seasonally, and traditions such as the Naadam festival, throat singing and Kazakh eagle hunting in the west. Ger-stay and community-based tourism let travellers stay with herder families, channelling income directly to them. This is among the most intact living nomadic cultures on Earth.
✓Heritage, scored 5/5. Mongolia holds an exceptionally strong and living nomadic heritage carried across the steppe. Khoomei throat singing, the urtiin duu long song and the morin khuur horsehead fiddle are all recognised by UNESCO, as are the Naadam festival of wrestling, archery and horse racing and the Bie Biyelgee traditional dance. Ancestral spiritual life remains vivid, blending Mongolian shamanism and Tengrism with Vajrayana Buddhism, including the masked Tsam ritual dance. In the west, Kazakh communities keep the ancestral practice of eagle hunting alive. Nomadic pastoral culture, felt-making and the ger remain everyday living tradition rather than performance.
✓Natural fibres, scored 5/5. Herding sustains a living natural-materials culture of cashmere, sheep wool, camel hair, felt and leather, with felt still used to build and insulate gers. Mongolia is one of the world's leading cashmere producers and felt-making is an everyday nomadic skill. Natural fibres are woven into daily life rather than kept for heritage display.
Where does Mongolia score worst?
✕Recycling, scored 2/5. There is no strong national recycling rate; formal systems are limited and concentrated in Ulaanbaatar, while informal collectors recover scrap metal, plastic and glass. A small recycling industry exists but coverage is thin. Scored from documented reality rather than a published rate.
✕Water, scored 2/5. Mongolia is largely arid, with the Gobi in the south, yet the north holds major freshwater including Lake Khovsgol, which stores a large share of the country's fresh water. Only about 30% of the population used safely managed drinking water in 2020 (WHO/UNICEF JMP), and Ulaanbaatar's ger districts often rely on water kiosks rather than piped supply. Security is constrained by aridity, distribution and climate stress on rivers.
✕Organic farming, scored 1/5. FiBL records only about 241 hectares of certified organic farmland, effectively 0% of agricultural land in 2020, despite vast extensively grazed rangelands. Certification is almost absent even though much herding is low-input by nature. Scored on the recorded near-zero share.
Similar countries doing it better and worse
Sri LankaScored on the same twelve pillars as Mongolia.75
IndiaScored on the same twelve pillars as Mongolia.72
ThailandScored on the same twelve pillars as Mongolia.68
PhilippinesScored on the same twelve pillars as Mongolia.62
JordanScored on the same twelve pillars as Mongolia.50
MaldivesScored on the same twelve pillars as Mongolia.42
A note from the lens of mother natureswipe →
Energy, 2/5
Mongolia's power system is dominated by coal, which supplies close to 90 per cent of electricity, while wind, solar and small hydro together provided under 10 per cent of generation in 2023. Coal is also the backbone of the export economy, sold in large volumes to China, which deepens the country's fossil-fuel dependence.
Consequence: It is the lowest-scoring part of Mongolia's record, so it is where the score moves first.
Food and farming, 3/5
Mongolia is self-sufficient in meat and dairy from its enormous livestock herds and grows wheat and potatoes, but it imports most vegetables, fruit and processed foods. Pastoral production is the backbone of rural life and diet.
Consequence: It is the lowest-scoring part of Mongolia's record, so it is where the score moves first.
Heritage, 5/5
Mongolia holds an exceptionally strong and living nomadic heritage carried across the steppe. Khoomei throat singing, the urtiin duu long song and the morin khuur horsehead fiddle are all recognised by UNESCO, as are the Naadam festival of wrestling, archery and horse racing and the Bie Biyelgee traditional dance.
Consequence: It is the lowest-scoring part of Mongolia's record, so it is where the score moves first.
The Mongolia Directory.
Everything on Hold The Throne that sits in Mongolia, checked and listed.
World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2024. Percentile among all governments measured.
Government effectiveness
43.8 / 100
World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2024. Percentile among all governments measured.
Rule of law
55.2 / 100
World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2024. Percentile among all governments measured.
Political stability
73.1 / 100
World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2024. Percentile among all governments measured.
Voice and accountability
59.1 / 100
World Bank Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2024. Percentile among all governments measured.
Environmental Performance Index
37.2 / 100 · 143 of 180
Yale Environmental Performance Index 2024, ranked 143 of 180 countries assessed.
Ecosystem vitality
55.2 / 100 · 68 of 180
Yale Environmental Performance Index 2024, ranked 68 of 180 countries assessed.
Biodiversity and habitat
64.2 / 100 · 34 of 180
Yale Environmental Performance Index 2024, ranked 34 of 180 countries assessed.
Air pollution
48.2 / 100 · 145 of 180
Yale Environmental Performance Index 2024, ranked 145 of 180 countries assessed.
Terrestrial biomes protected
59.2 / 100 · 76 of 180
Yale Environmental Performance Index 2024, ranked 76 of 180 countries assessed.
How Mongolia Is Scored. The Throne Standard.
Every destination on the index is scored the same way, so a 4 in Barbados means exactly what a 4 means in Iceland. No self-declared data and no brochure claims are accepted. Every figure on this page carries its named source and year, and the history on each page names what empire took as plainly as it scores the present.
The 12 pillars every destination is scored on, equally weighted
01
Conservation
Land and sea actually protected, not pledged
02
Wildlife
What survives, what is endemic, what is lost
03
Water
Fresh water per person, and the ocean’s health
04
Food & farming
Whether the place can feed itself
05
Organic & clean
Certified land and pesticide reality
06
Climate & energy
Emissions per person, how the grid is powered
07
Waste
Where the rubbish goes, what comes back
08
Health
What people eat and die of
09
Heritage
Living culture, and what the law keeps standing
10
Ownership
Who owns the economy, how much of a dollar stays
11
Governance
Freedom, honesty, promises kept
12
Future
Measured trends run forward, pledges against pace
What each 0 to 5 pillar score means, in plain words
One index, every destination. This same sectioned page renders for all 77 scored destinations, each with its own researched history, comparison charts and three-way future. Read the full methodology
